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Various Components of Thermal Power Plant

Power Plant Engineering by Black & Veatch



This comprehensive volume provides a complete, authoritative, up-to-date reference for all aspects of power plant engineering. Coverage ranges from engineering economics to coal and limestone handling, from design processes to plant thermal heat balances. Both theory and practical applications are covered, giving engineers the information needed to plan, design, construct, upgrade, and operate power plants. Power Plant Engineering is the culmination of experience of hundreds of engineers from Black & Veatch, a leading firm in the field for more than 80 years.

The authors review all major power generating technologies, giving particular emphasis to current approaches. Special features of the book include:

More than 1000 figures and lines drawings that illustrate all aspects of the subject.
Coverage of related components and systems in power plants such as turbine-generators, feedwater heaters, condenser, and cooling towers.

Definitions and analyses of the features of various plant systems.

Discussions of promising future technologies. PowerPlant Engineering will be the standard reference in the professional engineer s library as the source of information on steam power plant generation. In addition, the clear presentation of the material will make this book suitable for use by students preparing to enter the field.

Download : Power Plant Engineering

Download YouTube Videos: Easy Way


YouTube is undoubtedly the most preferred website to share and watch favorite videos. Most users prefer to watch the videos online, while a few others like me, would like to download them so that they can be saved and retained. Well, if you are one among those few who would like to download the videos from YouTube, then here is a way to do that.
In fact, there are many ways to download videos from YouTube, but here in this post, I would like to share with you one of the easiest way to do that. This can be done as follows:
    1. Download and install the latest version of Internet Download Manager.
      Internet Download Manager is a great add-on for your web browser which increases the download speed by 5 times. It also helps you to pause/resume and schedule your downloads. It has got a great interface and is user friendly. It works with most of the browsers including IE, Firefox, Chrome, Safari and Opera.
    2. After you complete the installation, just open your browser and start searching for your favorite video on YouTube. You will see thedownload button on top of the video using which you can download it instantly.

  1. Click on the “Download this Video” button to save the video onto your computer. The downloaded video will be in the flash video format (.flv).
  2. You can use VLC Player to play the downloaded video or use SUPER to convert it to your desired format.
By using this trick, you can download almost all the buffering content on the Internet including videos from MySpace and Google. I hope you like this small post. Don’t forget to pass your comments. Enjoy
Other way.

Hotmail tips and tricks



Hotmail tips and tricks to make you faster

Some Hotmail secrets are well guarded: here are a few tips and tricks to make you use Hotmail more efficiently. Don't feel like you should memorize all these tips at once: just try one, and use it until you are familiar and comfortable with it during your day-to-day emailing activities. Then, move on to another trick and repeat the process: before you know it, you will have mastered an entire collection of Hotmail productivity tips!
• File Hotmail emails faster: the most intuitive way to file an email inside a folder is to select it, click the Move To menu, and choose the destination folder. This approach can be very efficient if you are filing multiple emails at once: to move a single email, however, this gets tedious: instead, use the mouse to drag an email to its destination folder, and release the mouse button once the email outline is above the folder:

Hotmail tip: drag emails to file them
• Use Hotmail without the mouse! A lot of common actions you perform in Hotmail can be done without the mouse: learn more about Hotmail keyboard shortcuts to get the full list of secret keystrokes. Here is an example: just hit the Delete key ("Del") to move the selected email to the Deleted folder in a fraction of a second (you can always recover the email later in case of accident). Caution tip: when you are inside Hotmail's Junk Mail folder, deleting an email will in fact permanently delete it, and not move it to the Deleted items folder, like deleting from other folders does.
• Tip to quickly find an email Here's a Hotmail tip that will save you hours of scrolling through screens of emails to find the right one: click inside the search box displayed in the top right corner of the screen, type one or more keywords that you know appear inside an email you are looking for, and hit Enter. In a matter of seconds, Hotmail will find the emails matching your search, regardless of the folder in which they are currently stored!

Hotmail tip to quickly find an email
• Are you tired of having to click "Show content" to display images in your emails? Here is a Hotmail tip to permanently disable this message for emails you deem safe. Clicking "Show content" only works once; next time you open that same email, Hotmail will again protect your privacy: while this is an extremely useful feature to prevent spammers from getting the confirmation that your email account does in fact exist, it gets in the way of efficient email reading for trusted senders (like newsletters, which often include graphics). Simply click on the "Mark as safe" link: Hotmail will remember that, and never show you that message for this particular sender or newsletter! (The trick is to do it at least once for every newsletter.)

Hotmail tip: always show images in emails
• Here is a related Hotmail tip: quickly group together emails sent by the same person -Instead of searching for an email, it takes is two clicks to sort them. First, click on the not-so-obvious "Sort By" menu (or, better put, easily overlooked), and then choose "From". This instructs Hotmail to temporarily display your emails by sender, as opposed to ordering them by date. Once you are done locating the email you wanted to find, simply click once more on the Sort-By menu, and choose Date to resume sorting emails with newest emails at the top.

Hotmail tip to quickly group related emails: the Sort-By menu
• …And a tip about a tip: reverse the current email sort order in Hotmail - You just learned how to sort your emails by a different field; click once more on the Sort-By menu, and choose the same sort criteria: this will sort your Hotmail emails by the same field, but this time in reverse order! Notice in the screenshot above how Hotmail displays a downward-pointing arrow? Once you click on Sort-by-date again, the arrow now points upward, and the emails have been sorted in reverse order:

Small Hotmail trick: look at the arrow direction to determine email sort order
• Major Hotmail tip: how to hide or remove the ads! This isn't much of a Hotmail secret, but is not well documented either: the only thing you have to do to remove the ads in Hotmail is to sign up for Hotmail Plus, a version of Windows Live Hotmail that currently costs only $20 per year, and includes bonus features, in addition to hiding the ads! This tricks is filed under "Hotmail tips that make you faster" because (1) you will save time by having your Hotmail account load faster without the ads, and (2) because you will no longer be distracted by Hotmail ads or flashing banners! Well worth a look, in our opinion (and we are subscribers!)
Hotmail email filters and rules• Automatically move email to folders! You can configure Hotmail to automatically sort your emails, and place them inside folders based on criteria you can customize; this Hotmail tip will help you keep an uncluttered inbox, with all your emails storing themselves where appropriate. Let Hotmail do the heavy lifting for you, and learn how you can easily create, manage, and disable as needed email filters (aka email rules) in Hotmail.

Hotmail tips on extra functionality

Hotmail is designed to be user-friendly from the get go: for this reason, you may get into a routine in checking, sending, and generally managing your emails, without realizing that Hotmail can offer much more. Also, the Windows Live Team that maintains Hotmail regularly adds new features, which you would only find out by chance unless you follow closely the ongoing development of the service. This section of Hotmail tips and tricks is designed so that you don't have to dig through documentation to find a few more timesaving tips!
Send emails from an alternate email account, using Hotmail• Stay in Hotmail for all your email needs —Everyday, you log into your Hotmail account, and close the browser window; later on, you probably open an email program to check your work email address; etc., etc. The cycle goes on throughout the day, and you spend minutes -hours, by the end of the year- opening and closing your browser or email program. Here's a Hotmail tip for you: you can setup additional email accounts in Hotmail not only to read emails, but also to send email, right from Hotmail, using alternate email accounts. Learn how you can check emails from another account right from Hotmail, orsetup another email account in Hotmail to send emails!
• Check Hotmail from Outlook — The reverse of the previous Hotmail tip is true too: you can setup your Hotmail account inside your email program at work, alongside another email account. You can directly setup Hotmail in Windows Live Mail, or, if you use Microsoft Outlook, you can download "Outlook Connector", a free piece of software from Microsoft that allows you to connect to your Hotmail account straight from Outlook 2003 or Outlook 2007!
Use Hotmail search to find emails• Quickly find emails with the Hotmail email search tool —Another Hotmail tip for productivity: you do not need to scroll through hundreds of emails to find a particular piece of information. Hotmail offers two tools that help you quickly find the emails you are looking for: the first one is the ability tosort your emails by a variety of criteria; the second is to use the Hotmail email search tool, (and how to extend its functionality, as we explain in that tutorial - along with tips to find your emails faster, and without frustration of trying in vane special search tricks).
• Load your Hotmail inbox directly — When you log into your Hotmail account, you are automatically (and by default) redirected to the "Hotmail Today" page, which gives you a summary of various pieces of information you likely do not read anyway. Here is a tip to load your inbox right away: configure Hotmail with a few clicks to skip "Hotmail Today" and automatically go to your inbox as soon as you log in!
Hotmail autoreplies (out of office autoreplies)• Hotmail tip for the big travelers — Did you know that you can configure Hotmail to automatically send email notifications to your contacts (or all email senders) while you are away, or unavailable? Hotmail calls these emails "automated vacation replies" - you can turn them on or off as needed, in a couple of clicks; this will allow to avoid embarrassing explanations for lack of responsiveness when you forgot to tell someone that you were going on vacation! Learn how tocreate automated vacation replies in Hotmail.

“Aha!” Hotmail tips

• Forgot if you already replied to an email? Hotmail tip: custom icon for replied-to emailsNo problem! Here are two tips to check if you did: first, if you still have the original email, look at the icon. If it shows a magenta left-pointing arrow, it means that you have replied to the email (see screenshot). The trick is to have replied to the email from Hotmail, of course, and not from an email program using your Hotmail account: this way, Hotmail will know, and keep on record, that you have replied to, or forwarded the email. Hotmail tip: look for the forwarded-email icon!And here's a bonus tip: any email you forwarded from Hotmail will have a distinctive icon as well: a light-blue, rightward-pointing arrow on top of the email icon shows you that you have forwarded the message in question. And a final tip on Hotmail email icons: if you did both reply to and forward an email, the email icon will reflect the last action (and not display two arrows).
• Forgot if you already replied to an email (but deleted the original email)? No worries: by default, Hotmail keeps a copy of every email you send inside the Sent emails folder. And here is another tip: Hotmail lets you turn off this feature, simply by going to Options > More Options, and then clicking on Save sent messages - there you have the option to turn this feature on or off. (We recommend you only turn it off if you are a spy, or if you are seriously running out of storage space for that Hotmail account.)
• Forgot a contact's name or email address? Fear not, while composing a new Hotmail email, you can at any time pull up your full address book with the click of a button, without leaving the email you are composing: this full contact list will give you all the names and email addresses you might need, sorted alphabetically and organized by tabs for quick access.

Hotmail tip: view your entire list of contacts with a single click
• Sign in to Windows Live Messenger, and change your online status straight from Hotmail - Invisible unless you happened to pay close attention to the email commands toolbar, here is a tip if you use Microsoft's Instant Messenger: Hotmail now lets you launch and sign in. Another trick: once you are signed in to Messenger, you can also change your online status from Hotmail: just use the same Messenger menu.

Hotmail tip: sign in to IM from your web browser
• Hotmail tip: find out where an email was sent from - All emails contain "email headers", some of which contain the "IP address" from which the email was sent. Learn how you can get that information from Hotmail's "X-Originating-IP" field. We even included a form that allows you to check the current ownership of the IP address from which an email was sent.
• I want to check my Hotmail emails at work, but I don't want to get caught! Good Hotmail tip, don't share it with your boss: without opening a browser window to Windows Live Hotmail, you can actually get a copy of every email that is sent to your Hotmail account, straight to your work email address. Learn how have Hotmail automatically forward your emails to another email account.

Hotmail tip: you can setup Hotmail email forwarding

Gmail Tips & Tricks


Note: All tips current as of Firefox 2.0.0.12 and Gmail 2.0 beta.

You already know that Gmail beats all other email providers with its endless customization capabilities, Google product integration and fantastic spam filter. Take it to the next level with these Gmail power user tips and Greasemonkey extensions for Firefox. We haven’t forgotten the Mac users, either. For more great resources, check out the official Gmail blog and the Gmail Power Users group on Google Groups. If you'd like to learn more about other email programs, check out the email category at the web directory.


1. Master the Gmail keyboard shortcuts
If you haven’t already, master the shortcut keys. Compose, mark as read, archive and much more with the press of a button. Sure, you know c for compose and ! for report spam, but do you know g + t for the sent mail folder? You can find a complete list at the official Gmail shortcut page.
2. Google Code Macros
The Greasemonkey extension for Firefox, familiar to many power users, allows JavaScript functionality on any web page. Piggybacking off of this capability, the generically-named Macros script enables a number of keyboard shortcuts. Google apparently integrated some of Macros shortcuts when revamping Gmail, but there are still functions that the Macros programmers believe Gmail needs. “I firmly believe this is *the* essential Gmail trick to end all Gmail tricks,” writes David Chartier at DownloadSquad.

 
3. Create bookmarklets for frequent searches
This form created by Steve Rubel generates a bookmarklet for searches in Gmail. (By the way, a bookmarklet is a baby bookmark that acts a single click tool for a webpage or browser—thanks, Wikipedia). Take Rubel’s form further by dragging the bookmarklets to your bookmarks bar. 
4. Resize your compose box
The aptly-named Resizeable Textarea Firefox extension allows you to click and drag the edge of your compose box without resizing your browser window. Note that any browser built with the newest Opensource.org webkit—Safari, for example—will already have this capability. For more browser info, check out the internet software category.

 
5. View unread messages first
Search on the string “label:unread label:inbox” to force all of your unread messages to the top of the list, writes Matt Cutts. (Note: you don’t have to create any labels for this to work.) Try bookmarking Cutts’s search and dragging it to your bookmarks bar to view all unread messages first.
6. Streamline adding attachments
Wouldn’t it be great if you could drop attachments directly into the attachment box? Check out the Firefox extensionDragdropupload if you are running Firefox 2.0 (as of this writing, it hadn’t been updated for 2.0.0.12).

 
7. Quickly switch between Google accounts
If you have multiple Google accounts—a Gmail with Google Apps account and a regular Gmail account, for example—streamline them with this script for Firefox with Greasemonkey. The script adds a “change user” drop-down bar in place of the “sign out” link.



You can also try Gmail Manager (also a Firefox extension), which adds a Gmail menu bar to the Firefox window. Juggle multiple accounts, sign in and out.

 
8. Bookmark a single email
As of November 2007, all Gmail messages have dedicated URLs (according to the official Gmail blog). Rather than killing a tree by printing the message or laboriously copying down the info, you can CTRL-D (or ?-D) an important email and refer to it at your leisure.

9. Automate frequently repeated text
Signature functionality is built into Gmail, but frequently typed phrases can be automated with Firefox extension Signature, which allows you to insert designated text with a keystroke. (As of this writing, Signature is not yet compliant with Firefox 2.0.0.12.) Also try a Windows app called AutoHotKey or Mac app TypeIt4Me. Both apps allow you to create keystrokes to automate text in virtually any application.




10. POP3 & IMAP forwarding
“I recommend using IMAP (where the mail is both on the server and on your local machine(s)/device(s)) and uploading all your email onto Gmail,” writes Mark Wheeler, a Gmail power user. “You can keep copies on the Google servers and your desktop/laptop/phone so that they are all efficiently accessible and available anytime anywhere. Don't have to worry about backups, or disk space...I have 25,000 emails and have only used 9% of my space!”

To upload old email like my friend did, set up a Gmail IMAP account in your desktop email client. In the client, establish folders that correspond to your Gmail labels, and drag and drop your non-Gmail into the folders. If you're using Outlook with .PST format or Outlook Express, you will have to convert or export the emails to mBox data file format before the messages will translate. The process may take some time, and your client may hang. Also, the original dates and times attached to the messages will appear in Gmail as the dates and times that the messages were imported into Gmail. But it's worth the trouble to utilize your tricked-out Gmail, right? Click here for a tutorial from My Digital Life.


11. Mute a conversation
Ever found yourself subscribed to a mailing list and the current conversation has nothing to do with you? If you don’t want to unsubscribe, you can easily stop the friendly spam with the Gmail mute function. Select a message in the thread and hit the m key to auto-archive all incoming messages in the conversation. The thread will stay muted until you unmute it; it will also un-mute itself if your address appears in the To or CC box. 
12. Get it all in one place
Gmail’s built-in Mail Fetcher allows you to receive and send from up to five different accounts via POP3. Unlike a simple forwarding feature, Mail Fetcher allows synchronizing of your Gmail actions with the home server. Go to your Gmail Settings ? Accounts, then Add another mail account. One caveat of sending from non-Gmail accounts: the recipients may see FROMyou@Gmail.com on behalf of you@otherdomain.com, especially if the recipients are using a client like Outlook.

 
13. Get it all in one place
With the Google Toolbar and Gmail combined, power user Steve Rubel has made his Gmail account into a massive archive of his interests. Steal his trick by adding the Google toolbar to your browser. When you happen across text or images you want to save, highlight them and click the send to Gmail link. Rubel has also tons of other great hints.
14. Secure your email
Work that requires maximum security—or run-of-the-mill paranoia—is made easier with this script with Greasemonkey + Firefox.  It'll force a secure connection when accessing Gmail. To make sure you're as secure as you can be, check out the internet security category at the web directory.


15. Don't forget that attachment
If your sent folder is full of "Oops, here's the attachment" messages, this handy reminder Greasemonkey script will scan your messages--including replies and forwards--for references to attachments. (The release notes say that it searches for "attached," "attachment" or certain unknown variations.) If you mention an attachment and forget to add it, a prompt will pop up.
16. Gmail Notifier for Windows / Google Notifier for Mac
Rather than keeping a browser window open and hitting CTRL-R like you've got OCD, install a widget like Gmail Notifier for Windows or Google Notifier for Macs. It'll check your email (and Google Calendar, if you're a Mac user) as compulsively as you do. And as with almost everything else under the sun, there's a Firefox extension that will serve the same function (it's not released by Google).



 
17. Google Desktop Plug-In for Google Notifier
Some users have reported compatibility issues between Google Toolbar, Google Apps and Google Desktop. Everyone's configuration is different, blah blah blah, so it's impossible to know, but Maxim Alexeyev created this Google Desktop Plug-Inwhich purports to replace Google Notifier for Google Desktop and Google Toolbar users. The plug-in also offers multi-username functions and Google Apps support.
18. Check Gmail from the couch with Apple Remote
Mac users who actually use their Apple Remotes (show of hands—anyone? anyone?) can check out this Lifehacker tutorial that lets you check your Gmail from your couch with Firefox shortcuts. There’s gotta be someone out there who needs this…

 
19. Read your Google Reader RSS feeds in Gmail
Treat your Google Reader RSS feeds the same way you treat old friends with this Greasemonkey + Firefox script. Feeds invading your Gmail will offer more-efficient time-wasting than ever before. Note that Google Reader and Gmail seem to be moving closer together in functionality and interface and it's likely that they'll soon be officially integrated.

 
20. Include or exclude Chat from search results
Chat conversations are automatically filed like emails with a Chat label, so to exclude Chat when searching, use the string -label:Chat. Conversely, to search only Chat conversations, use the string +label:Chat. The –label: and +label: syntax will work to exclude or include any label in Gmail search results. Another Jim Barr tip.
21. Use Gmail like an external hard drive
Use up any vegetating space in your Gmail account with this Windows drive shell extension. Your Gmail space appears in My Computer/Windows Explorer as an external drive, and when you drag and drop a file to the drive, it sends an email to your Gmail account with the file as an attachment. Note that this is a fairly old program but seems to have been updated for the latest Gmail version. Mac users can try gDisk and Linux users can check out GmailFS.




22. Spam counter hider
You’re browsing through your (overstuffed) inbox. You have many labels, filters and tricks that ensure that your email gets to you efficiently. Even so, you look at the number of messages in the spam folder and a small voice inside you says, “There could be something in the spam folder that doesn’t belong there!” Forget it. There never is. This Greasemonkey + Firefox script hides the spam count number, so the thought doesn’t even cross your mind.
23. Hack Gmail’s CSS
“Stylish is to CSS what Greasemonkey is to JavaScript,” says the Firefox extension page for Stylish. Cascade those style sheets yourself, or grab them from userstyles.org. For more web design tips and tricks, check out these web design and developmentresources. 
24. Launch one-key composing with Launchy (Windows) or Quicksilver (Mac)
Launchy is a free, open source keyword launcher that runs in your system tray and opens apps with designated keystrokes. Launchy’s still “a far cry from Quicksilver for Mac” according to Gina Trapani at Lifehacker, but Adam Pash of Lifehacker says,
“I can't recommend it highly enough.” There’s a quick tutorial on one-key Gmail composing with Launchy—opening a browser logged into Gmail with a compose window with a single keystroke—here.

 
25. Better Gmail 2 with all-in-one Greasemonkey script
For a one-size-fits-all solution that combines several Greasemonkey scripts into one package, check out Better Gmail 2, which combines dozens of Greasemonkey scripts into one package. Allow HTML use in signatures, force a secure connection, convert labels into folders and make the spam folder invisible. There’s also a Better Gmail 2 extension for those using Firefox 3 beta. Cnet strongly recommends the extension in their review.
26. Create a podcast of your Gmail
Without an iPhone or Blackberry, the morning subway ride can get pretty boring. And you can’t navigate a smartphone while driving—or at least, you shouldn’t. Create an RSS feed from your Gmail account with this syntax:
https://username:password@gmail.google.com/gmail/feed/atom
Then sign for a FeedBurner account to host and distribute it. Use a RSS to podcast site like AudioDizer.com or one of the many options at NextUp to create text-to-speech files. Voila! This hack is based on a tip from Mike Donaghy. For even more, check out these podcast resources. 
27. Force mailto: to open with Gmail
The annoyance of prompts from Outlook or Apple Mail with every mailto: link you click can be ended. This Greasemonkey scriptforces mailto: scripts to open Gmail. (Note: it’s unclear whether this script is compliant with the newest version of Gmail.)
28. Emulate a mail client
For those who can’t decide between a full-fledged mail client and browser-based Gmail, SimpleMail straddles the divide with a three-paned mail view. Mac users should note Adam Pash at Lifehacker warns that he had trouble getting IMAP to work with Firefox 3 on the Mac, but he doesn’t mention testing it with Firefox 2.0.0.12.

 
29. Sort mail with the Trusted Trio
Gina Trapani at Lifehacker suggests sorting your Gmail according to the Trusted Trio system—Follow Up, Hold and Archive. To keep the Inbox clear, sort all messages into one of these three categories. Since Gmail has an archive function built-in, Trapani suggests merely creating two labels—Follow Up and Hold; if desired, add numbers to get the two folders to display in the order you’d like. Check out the full explanation of the Trusted Trio system.
30. Pre-label and sort your mail
Many email providers, including Gmail, allow you to append your address with +something—for example, you can give all of your OS/2 user group buddies your address as you+OS2@gmail.com. (Note that Gmail addresses are not case sensitive). The incoming emails that wax nostalgic about IBM’s late great OS will be pre-labeled, and you can establish filters to sort them. The +something system also allows you to stop spam before it starts. If inappropriate emails with a designated +something address, you can kill off the address. You’ll also have an inkling how the spam got started. Thanks to Jim Barr for this tip.
31. Force Firefox extensions to work with Firefox 3 beta
This Lifehacker tip is for extreme power users only, as it could open your system to serious security flaws and bleeding edge malfunctions. It’s only a few easy steps after the jump. Have fun! User fluxam reports a list of extensions that were functioning in 3 beta as of 02/13/2008. 
32. Add address-specific signatures with HTML
If you use multiple Gmail accounts, the Gmail HTML Signatures extension for Firefox + Greasemonkey automates the signature process. Based on the address you’re sending from, this extension will automatically insert HTML-formatted signatures.

 
33. Backup your Gmail
If you’re using a desktop or smartphone mail client, you’ve already got some backups of your email. But what if you’re all web-based? What if Gmail servers were hit by a nuclear bomb? Stop the paranoia and check the Gmail backup tutorial here and the Google Apps backup tips here.


34. Command line Gmail access (Windows) and nightly backup
There’s a tutorial—not for n00bs—here.
35. Force Gmail Notifier (Windows) to use SSL
This wikihow tutorial involves hex editing. Advanced Mac users with Google Notifier, here’s a comment on the O’Reilly Mac DevCenter forums that should help. Edit at your own risk. 

Advanced Excel Formulas Lists

Introducing Microsoft Project 2007

Understanding Six Sigma

File Conversion Network

Just Need a Single Conversion Format? Bookmark these sites: 

PDF to HTML: PDF to HTML
Word to PDF: Word 2 PDF
Powerpoint to PDF: Powerpoint to PDF
Publisher to PDF: Publisher to PDF
Online OCR Conversion: Scanned OCR PDF to Word

Nanotechnology

 

Simply Nano means small.Nanotechnology is the art and science of manipulating matter at the atomic or molecular scale and may lead to significant improvements in technologies for protecting the environment and it is the understanding and control of matter at the nanoscale, at dimensions between approximately 1 and 100 nanometers*, where unique phenomena enable novel applications.

What is nanometer ?

One nanometer (nm) is 10-9 meter (a mµ ) .It is the size of atoms and molecules . It takes about 3-10 atoms to span the length of a nanometer. In comparison, the diameter of a human hair is about 20,000 nm wide and a smoke particle is about 1,000 nm in diameter.


Advantages of  Nanotechnology

  • Certain nanostructures can recognize diseased cells and deliver drugs directly to cancerous tumors without harming healthy cells or organs.

  • New solar panels incorporating nanotechnology are far more efficient than standard designs in converting sunlight to electricity, promising much more economical solar power in the future.

  • Researchers have discovered how ultrasmall specks of rust can help remove arsenic from drinking water.

  • For environmental cleanup, researchers have developed a nanofabric that is woven from tiny wires and can absorb 20 times its weight in oil.

TURBINES

A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work.It  converts  the energy of rushing water, steam or wind into mechanical energy to drive a generator.Then generator produce electricity with  mechanical energy given by turbine. 

Turbine type according to available head

Propeller up to 15 metres
Kaplan up to 30 metres

Francis 10 to 300 metres

Pelton 300 metres and over

 Propeller turbine
propeler shaft
propeler shaft

Since they can reach very high rotation speeds, propeller turbines are effective for low heads. Consequently, this type of turbine is suitable for run-of-river power stations.

PELTON TURBINE 

pelton turbine
pelton turbine

The Pelton turbine is an impulse turbine.It requires tangential water flow on one side of the wheel and must therefore operate when only partly submerged. It is best suited to applications with a high head but a low volume flow rate such as fast flowing shallow water courses though it is used in a wide range of situations with heads from as low as 15 metres up to almost 2000 metres. High pressure heads give rise to very fast water jets impinging in the blades resulting in very high rotational speeds of the turbine.Pelton wheels are ideal for low power installations with outputs of 10kW or less but they have also been used in installations with power outputs of up to 200 MW. Efficiencies up to 95% are possible.Named after its American inventor, Lester Pelton (1829-1908), this turbine uses spoon-shaped buckets to harness the energy of falling water.

FRANCIS TURBINE 

FRANCIS TURBINE
FRANCIS TURBINE

Francis turbine is mainly used in hydro electric power plants.It was named after James Bicheno Francis (1815-1892), the American engineer who invented the apparatus in 1849.The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine designed to operate fully submerged. Water flow enters in a radial direction towards the axis and exits in the direction of the axis. Its is suitable for lower heads of water of 500 metres or less and is the most commonly used high power turbines. Large scale turbines used in dams are capable of delivering over 500 MW of power from a head of water of around 100 metres with efficiencies of up to 95%.

KAPLAN TURBINE 



The propeller turbine, is an example of a reaction turbine. Designed to work fully submerged, it is similar in form to a ship’s propeller and is the most suitable design for low head water sources with a high flow rate such as those in slow running rivers. Designs are optimised for a particular flow rate and efficiencies drop of rapidly if the flow rate falls below the design rating. The Kaplan version has variable pitch vanes to enable it to work efficiently over a range of flow rates.Austrian engineer Viktor Kaplan (1876-1934) invented this turbine. It’s similar to the propeller turbine, except that its blades are adjustable; their position can be set according to the available flow.

ELECTRICITY

        ELECTRICITY

    
                                                                     
Electricity is a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable phenomena, such as lightning, static electricity, and the flow of electrical current in an electrical wire. In addition, electricity encompasses less familiar concepts such as the electromagnetic field and electromagnetic induction.The word is from the New Latin ēlectricus, “amber-like”, coined in the year 1600 from the Greek ήλεκτρον (electron) meaning amber, because electrical effects were produced classically by rubbing amber.In general usage, the word “electricity” adequately refers to a number of physical effects. In a scientific context, however, the term is vague, and these related, but distinct, concepts are better identified by more precise terms:

·         Electric charge: a property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields.
·         Electric current: a movement or flow of electrically charged particles, typically measured in amperes.
·         Electric field: an influence produced by an electric charge on other charges in its vicinity.
·         Electric potential: the capacity of an electric field to do work on an electric charge, typically measured in volts.
·         Electromagnetism: a fundamental interaction between the magnetic field and the presence and motion of an electric charge.

CONDUCTORS
In physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is a material which contains movable electric charges. In metallic conductors such as copper or aluminum, the movable charged particles are electrons (see electrical conduction). Positive charges may also be mobile in the form of atoms bound in a crystal lattice which are missing electrons (known as holes), or in the form of mobile ions, such as in the electrolyte of a battery, or as mobile protons in proton conductors employed in fuel cells. In general use, the term “conductor” is interchangeable with “wire.” Insulators are non-conducting materials with few mobile charges and which support only insignificant electric currents. Copper has a high conductivity. Silver is more conductive, but due to cost it is not practical in most cases. However, it is used in specialized equipment, such as satellites, and as a thin plating to mitigate skin effect losses at high frequencies. Because of its ease of connection by soldering or clamping, copper is still the most common choice for most light-gauge wires.
             
Ohm’s law
A basic law regarding flow of currents was discovered by G.S. OHM in 1828,long before the physical mechanism responsible for flow of currents was discovered

 Ohm’s law states that the” current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance,one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship”.
                                            
I = V/R
                                    where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm’s law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.
               I = V/R       or       V=IR     or    R=V/I                     
                                                 

Four-stroke petrol engine

Four-stroke engine

Four-stroke cycle used in gasoline/petrol engines. The right blue side is the intake and the left brown side is the exhaust. The cylinder wall is a thin sleeve surrounded by cooling liquid.A four-stroke engine, also known as four-cycle, is an internal combustion engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes—intake, compression, power, and exhaust—during two separate revolutions of the engine’s crankshaft, and one single thermodynamic cycle.

There are two common types of engines, which are closely related to each other but have major differences in their design and behavior. The earliest of these to be developed is the Otto cycle engine which was developed in 1876 by Nikolaus August Otto in Cologne, Germany, after the operation principle described by Alphonse Beau de Rochas in 1861. This engine is most often referred to as a petrol engine or gasoline engine, after the fuel that powers it. The second type of four-cycle engine is the Diesel engine developed in 1893 by Rudolph Diesel, also of Germany. Diesel created his engine to maximize efficiency which was lacking in the Otto engine. There are several major differences between the Otto cycle engine and the four-cycle diesel engine. The diesel engine is made in both a two-cycle and a four-cycle version. Ironically Otto’s company Deutz AG produces primarily diesel engines in the modern era.

The Otto cycle is named after the 1876 engine of Nikolaus A. Otto, who built a successful four-cycle engine which was based on the work of Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir. It was the third engine type that Otto developed. It used a sliding flame gateway for ignition of its fuel which was a mixture of illuminating gas and air. After 1884 Otto also developed the magneto allowing the use of an electrical spark for ignition, which had been unreliable on the Lenoir engine.

The internal combustion engine (ICE) is used in motorcycles, automobiles, boats, trucks, aircraft, ships, heavy duty machinery, and in its original intended use as stationary power both for kinetic and electrical power generation. Diesel engines are found in virtually all heavy duty applications such as trucks, ships, locomotives, power generation, and stationary power. Many of these diesel engine are two-cycle with power ratings up to 105,000 hp (78,000 kW).

The four cycles refer to suction(intake), compression, combustion (power), and exhaust cycles that occur during two crankshaft rotations per power cycle of the four-cycle engines. The cycle begins at Top Dead Centre (TDC), when the piston is farthest away from the axis of the crankshaft. A cycle refers to the full travel of the piston from Top Dead Centre (TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC).

 

Working Principle Of Four Stroke Spark Ignition Engine.

Many of us may know about two stroke or four stroke engine.Those who are from mechanical or automobile field must have to familiar with this term.Actually two stroke or four stroke is the cycle of any reciprocating engine.When only two stroke required to complete the reciprocating engine cycle then that engine is known as two stroke engine,and when four stroke required to complete the cycle then it is known as four stroke engine.

In four stroke engine the work is obtained only during one stroke out of these for a single cylinder engine or for every cylinder individually for multi cylinder engine.If you have any automobile vehicle or machine,then you better know the above terms.

1)Suction Stroke.
This is first stroke of your engine.During this stroke the piston is moved downward from Top Dead Centre by means of crankshaft which is rotate by electric motor.This movement increases the size of combustion space thereby reducing the pressure inside the cylinder,as the result,the higher pressure of the outside atmosphere forces the air into combustion space through suction valve.The exhaust valve remain closed in this stroke.

A carburettor is put in the passage of incoming air which supplies a controlled quantity of fuel to this air.This air-fuel mixture thus comes in engine cylinder.

2)Compression Stroke.
This is second stroke of your engine.The air-fuel mixture is compressed during this upward stroke.The compression,forces the fuel into closer combination with air.Heat is produced due to compression aids the combustion of fuel.Just a little before the end of compression stroke the mixture is ignited by a spark produced by spark plug.During this stroke suction and exhaust valve remain closed.

3)Power Stroke.
This is third stroke of your engine.You may call it as Expansion Stroke also.The air-fuel mixture which burns at the end of compression stroke expands due to heat of combustion.This expansion of burnt air-fuel mixture exerts pressure in the cylinder and on the piston,and under this impulse the piston moves downward thus doing useful work.Suction and exhaust valve remain closed during this stroke.

4)Exhaust Stroke.
This is last stroke of your engine.During this stroke the suction valve remain closed while the exhaust valve opens.The greater part of burnt gases escape because of their own expansion.The upward movement of piston pushes the remaining gases out of the open exhaust valve.Thus complete the exhaust stroke and one cycle of engine.

Number of cycles are depend upon the rotation per minute of your engine.Higher the R.P.M.,higher the work done carried out by engine.I hope,this information will better help you to understand the working of your four
stroke engine.